Screenshot from Russia Post article. Used with permission.

Based on her academic research, sociologist Karina Goulordava described for Russia Post the experience of Russians who fled to Turkey following Russia’s full-scale invasion of Ukraine. Tightening immigration policies by the Turkish government is now forcing them to consider looking for new places to resettle. Global Voices is republishing the article, edited for length and clarity, with permission from Russia Post. 

Russians who came to Turkey after their country launched a full-scale aggression against Ukraine initially found a place of welcome and respite. Settling mainly in Istanbul and the Mediterranean resort cities of Antalya and Alanya, they viewed Turkey as a stable and enjoyable temporary home. Since early 2023, however, the country is increasingly a stopover before further migration or sometimes a return home, as more and more Russian exiles are refused residence permits by Turkish authorities. This shift occurs as Turkey grapples with high inflation, economic instability, and anti-immigrant sentiment, mainly targeting Syrian and Afghan refugees but becoming widespread among Turkish politicians and the public.

Limited options for Russian emigrants

Following the beginning of the full-scale invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, tens of thousands of Russians flew to Turkey, although many stayed only briefly, often immediately transiting to Europe or Asia. Estimates indicate that over 700,000 people fled Russia when Russia announced its “partial military mobilization” in September 2022. Observations and interviews indicate, however, that many of those people chose to return to Russia after the mobilization threat subsided.

From the early weeks of the influx, sociologist Karina Goulordava began informal observations of and conversations with Russians arriving in Turkey, later evolving into formal interviews about their journey and settlement.

As most European countries suspended flights with Russia and some neighboring countries restricted entry, Turkey became one of the destinations for fleeing Russians, as it allowed flights and a visa-free stay of 60 days. Restricting Russians would have negatively impacted Turkey’s tourism sector, which had already been crippled by the pandemic. In 2021, Russians were the largest group of foreign visitors to Turkey.

Despite limited options, Russians still made choices about where to resettle. Many chose Turkey because of previous tourist trips, which gave a sense of familiarity in an otherwise uncertain transition. Existing Russian-speaking communities in Istanbul, Antalya, and Alanya reinforced this, as there were already established Russian-language schools, kindergartens, and pharmacies with Russian-speaking staff. Russians noted Turkey’s development and quality of life, appreciating its infrastructure, service sector, and medical care.

Throughout 2022, Russians cited Turkey’s relative affordability, which has since declined due to an economic downturn, inflation, and skyrocketing housing costs, partly blamed on Russian arrivals in cities like Istanbul, Antalya, and Alanya.

Compared with Georgia, Armenia, Kazakhstan, and Serbia (other common destinations for Russian emigrants), Turkey stood out because it did not have a Soviet past and wasn't a NATO member. Turkey has long balanced the West and East, aligning with Western political, economic, and military institutions and Eastern partnerships, particularly under current President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan. In the Russia-Ukraine war, Turkey provided support to Ukraine and recognized its sovereignty while still relying on Russian oil and gas and not joining sanctions against Russia. Turkey leveraged its position to mediate negotiations between Russia and Ukraine, such as the Black Sea Grain Initiative and prisoner swaps.

Who are the Russians in Turkey?

The Russians who came to Turkey often match the general profile of those who have chosen to leave Russia since February 2022. Most are younger than 50, come from the country’s major urban areas, are educated and well-traveled, and, at least in Russia, were part of the middle class, which has significantly expanded since the 2000s. Their cited reasons for leaving Russia were a mix of opposition to the government, uncertainty about Russia’s stability, fear of being cut off from the world, and avoiding the military mobilization.

Higher-profile political activists, journalists, artists, and intellectuals mostly sought refuge in the EU or North America, often transiting through Turkey. Russians with wealth did not generally settle in Turkey, preferring Dubai.

Many who had economic and social capital in Russia found it harder to transfer these in Turkey; lower salaries and the need for fluency in Turkish limited employment. Obtaining a work permit is challenging — many migrants and refugees work informally.

Some Russians opened businesses in Turkey, like cafes, restaurants, and salons, mainly catering to Russians and the Russian-speaking community. Other businesses are advertised informally through social media, such as delivering homemade dishes popular in the former Soviet Union. Wealthier Russians have used Turkey’s citizenship-by-investment program, which grants Turkish citizenship with a property purchase of at least USD 400,000, with Russians consistently among the top foreign buyers of Turkish real estate.

Residence permits: The main hurdle to staying in Turkey

The exact number of Russians who have settled in Turkey since early 2022 is difficult to determine. According to the government agency overseeing immigration, around 80,000–90,000 Russians received first-time residence permits throughout 2022. Since early 2023, however, the number of Russian nationals with residence permits has declined, from a peak of around 150,000 at the end of 2022 to approximately 90,000 in September 2024. For comparison, at the end of 2021, around 66,000 Russians held Turkish residence permits.

Residence permit refusals have affected not only Russians but much of Turkey’s foreign population. Publicly available data shows a 21 percent decrease in foreign residents from the end of 2022 to September 2024. Russians report that refusal of a residence permit, or the fear of one, is the primary reason they are leaving Turkey.

Turkish immigration authorities rarely clarify their policy, though it appears reactive and rapidly changing. Throughout 2022, new Russian arrivals were rarely refused permits, and one-year residency could be obtained by presenting a rental contract. In early 2023, however, Russian communities reported rising refusal rates, reflected in declining residence permit figures.

Turkey’s increasingly unwelcoming immigration climate

Russians’ experiences in Turkey occur amid growing politicization of migration. Historically a country of out-migration, Turkey became more attractive as its economy improved. Its strategic location and borders with Europe, Syria, and Iraq brought refugees seeking safety or transit to Europe. In 2011, over 3.5 million Syrian refugees arrived due to the Syrian civil war. Today, around 3 million Syrians have temporary protected status, while around 220,000 asylum-seekers from other countries, mainly Afghanistan and Iraq, are under international protection, according to the UN High Commissioner for Refugees.

[Global Voices previously reported that the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees estimates that some 4 million refugees, mostly Syrians, live in Turkey. Afghans make up the second largest group.]

Public sentiment and political rhetoric in Turkey often display resistance to  immigration, especially targeting Syrian and Afghan refugees. Calls to deport Syrian refugees resonate widely among Turkish politicians, the public, and the Erdoğan administration. In 2023, the economic downturn and high inflation spurred anti-immigrant violence, including anti-Syrian riots in July, 2024 where a teenage boy was killed, and Syrian properties were damaged. [Ed: anti-immigrant sentiments were already there in 2021.]

With Ali Yerlikaya’s appointment as interior minister in July 2023, immigration policy became stricter. While residence permit denials were rising before, the government now enforces mobile immigration checks to verify residency status and reduce irregular migration. In Russian-populated areas of Antalya, checks were set up in shopping malls and cafes. However, unlike refugees without legal status, Russians found without permits were often asked to depart voluntarily rather than detained.

What’s next for the Russians in Turkey?

Many Russians, despite wishing to stay in Turkey, are considering onward migration due to residence permit issues and discomfort with the growing “anti-foreigner environment.” The economic downturn and high inflation have also led some to explore other destinations.

Russians’ options remain limited. Many express a desire to move to the EU or North America, though few believe they could obtain visas or legal residency. Some consider relocating to Serbia, Georgia, Armenia, or farther destinations like Thailand or Indonesia (particularly Bali). For most Russians who came to Turkey, uncertainty is the defining experience, and onward migration appears likely.

In the years ahead, the path of this new Russian diaspora may become clearer. Turkey may not be a long-term home for most recent Russian emigrants, a result of Turkey’s shifting immigration policies and climate. As after the 1917 revolution and the exodus of  Russians opposing the Bolsheviks (so-called White Russians, as opposed to “Red” — Bolsheviks) Turkey seems to be a temporary stop for the Russian diaspora rather than a permanent home.